Comparative analysis of current international and Russian approaches to workers’ radiation protection

Ionizing radiation is widely used in industry, energy, and medicine. The global number of monitored workers is approximately 24 million, while in the Russian Federation it stands at about 250,000, with the medical sector representing the largest employer. The study aims to compare approaches to regulating occupational exposure, evaluating the specific features of dose restrictions for different worker categories, medical surveillance, and the list of occupational diseases of radiation etiology. A comparison of the regulatory documents of the Russian Federation, the EU, the USA, the IAEA and the ILO revealed a high level of conceptual harmonization: general principles of justification, optimization and dose limitation (standardization in Russian practice); recognition of the linear non-threshold model and the principle of optimization of ALARA, the need for individual dosimetric control, workplace monitoring and medical supervision of employees. At the same time, significant differences remain in the classification of exposure situations and groups/categories of personnel, dose limits (especially for the lens of the eye and fetus) and reference levels, regulation of natural radiation, organization of medical supervision, and approaches to classifying occupational diseases of radiation origin. The systems considered show differing balances between strict regulatory mandates and risk-oriented flexibility. The Russian model prioritizes uniformity and procedural formalization; the US model relies on a recommendatory approach delegating responsibility to the licensee; whereas the IAEA and EU documents provide framework requirements for national application. Particular attention should be paid to the harmonization of scientific positions regarding dose limits for tissue reactions; consideration of new evidence on risks to the cardiovascular system; improvement of radiation monitoring technologies; regulation of exposure to natural radiation sources; optimization of radiological protection of medical personnel; and the development of guidelines for clinical practice based on a reliable evidence base.

Contributions:
Onishchenko G.G. — study concept, text editing;
Fatkhutdinova L.M. — study design, material collection and data processing, text writing;
Samoylov A.S. — study design, material collection and data processing, text editing.
All authors — approval of the final version of the article, responsibility for the integrity of all parts of the article.

Funding. The study had no funding.

Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Received: 10.06.2026 / Accepted: 18.06.2026 / Published: 27.07.2026

1. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation: UNSCEAR 2008 Report. Vol. I. Annex B — Exposures of the public and workers from various sources of radiation. New York: United Nations; 2010. https://clck.ru/3UPwaq

2. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation: UNSCEAR 2020/2021 Report. Vol. IV. Scientific Annex D — Evaluation of occupational exposure to ionizing radiation. New York: United Nations; 2022. https://clck.ru/3UPwhK

3. On the state of sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population in the Russian Federation in 2025: State report. Moscow: Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing, 2026. https://clck.ru/3UPoqQ (in Russian).

4. Barkovsky A.N., Akhmatdinov R.R., Sivenkov A.G., Tsovyanov A.G., Zhuravleva V.E., Kuvshinnikov S.I., Tutelyan O.E. Technogenic industrial exposure of personnel of radiation facilities in 2024. Radiatsionnaya Gygiena [Radiation Hygiene]. 2025; 18(4): 121–131. https://doi.org/10.21514/1998-426X-2025-18-4-121-131 (in Russian).

5. ICRP Publication 26. Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Annals of the ICRP. 1977; 1(3): 53. https://clck.ru/3UPwv3

6. ICRP Publication 60. 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Annals of the ICRP. 1991; 21(1–3): 201. https://clck.ru/3UPxWu

7. ICRP Publication 103. 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Annals of the ICRP. 1991; 37(2–4): 332. https://clck.ru/3UPxfE

8. Norms of the radiation safety (NRB 99/2009). Sanitary rules and norms. SanPiN 2.6.1.2523-09. M.; 2009. https://clck.ru/3UPp8Y (in Russian).

9. Basic sanitary rules for the provision of radiation safety (OSPORB 99/2010). Sanitary rules. SP 2.6.1.2612-10. M.; 2010. https://clck.ru/3UPy5G (in Russian).

10. Sanitary and epidemiological requirements for radiation safety of the population when handling sources of ionizing radiation. Sanitary rules and norms. SanPiN 2.6.4115-25. M.; 2025. https://clck.ru/3UPpAG (in Russian).

11. Council Directive 2013/59/Euratom of 5 December 2013 laying down basic safety standards for protection against the dangers arising from exposure to ionizing radiation. Official Journal of the European Union. 2014; L 13: 1–73. https://clck.ru/3UQ2Zw

12. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 10 — Energy, Chapter I — Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Part 20 «Standards for Protection Against Radiation» (10 CFR Part 20). https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/10/part-20

13. International Atomic Energy Agency. Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources: International Basic Safety Standards. IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GSR Part 3. Vienna: IAEA; 2014. https://clck.ru/3UQ6Mb

14. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. PAG Manual: Protective Action Guides and Planning Guidance for Radiological Incidents. EPA-400/R-17/001. Washington, D.C.: EPA; 2017. 101 p.

15. On the Establishment of the Unified State System for Monitoring and Recording Individual Exposure on the Establishment of the Unified State System for Monitoring and Recording Individual Exposure Doses of Citizens: Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 718 dated June 16, 1997. M.; 2025. https://clck.ru/3UPpCP (in Russian).

16. ICRP Publication 118. ICRP Statement on Tissue Reactions and Early and Late Effects of Radiation in Normal Tissues and Organs — Threshold Doses for Tissue Reactions in a Radiation Protection Context. Annals of the ICRP. 2012; 41(1–2): 322. https://clck.ru/3UQ6UG

17. Biegała M., Jakubowska T., Domienik-Andrzejewska J. Exposure to ionizing radiation of medical staff performing vascular and interventional radiology procedures. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. 2024; 37(4): 403-410. https://doi.org/10.13075/ijomeh.1896.02462

18. Beckert A, Kloth C, Kretschmer A, Schmitz B, Rosskopf J. Occupational radiation exposure of radiologic Beckert A., Kloth C., Kretschmer A., Schmitz B., Rosskopf J. Occupational radiation exposure of radiologic technologists in interventional neuroradiology. Neuroradiology. 2025; 67(11): 3325–3334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-025-03807-7

19. Romanovich I.K., Vodovatov A.V., Biblin A.M., Kormanovskaya T.A. On the issue of the development of legislative and regulatory provision of the radiation safety of the public. Radiatsionnaya Gygiena [Radiation Hygiene]. 2022; 15(1): 88–95. https://elibrary.ru/rqghtp (in Russian).

20. The Labor Code of the Russian Federation. Federal Law No. 197-FZ dated December 30, 2001. M.; 2001. https://clck.ru/3UPpEN (in Russian).

21. Ushakov I.B. Space. Radiation. Human (the radiation barrier in interplanetary flights). Moscow: Nauchnaia kniga; 2021. https://elibrary.ru/durgfc (in Russian).

22. Samoylov A.S., Ushakov I.B., Shurshakov V.A. Radiation Exposure During the Orbital and Interplanetary Spaceflights: Monitoring and Protection. Ekologiya cheloveka [Human Ecology]. 2019; 1: 4–9. https://elibrary.ru/eqqntv (in Russian).

23. Roskosmos, Federal Medical-Biological Agency. Standardization system in healthcare. Group 17. Requirements for life support systems in emergency situations and special systems. Limitation of cosmonaut exposure during near-Earth space flights (OOKOKP-2021)]. Metodicheskie rekomendatsii MR FМBA 17.01-2021. Moscow; 2021. (in Russian).

24. Federal Aviation Administration. Advisory Circular AC 120-61B «In-Flight Radiation Exposure». Washington, D.C.: FAA; 2014. https://clck.ru/3UQ6mv

25. International Atomic Energy Agency. Occupational Radiation Protection. IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GSG-7. AEA, Vienna. 2018. https://clck.ru/3UQ6pw

26. Niu S., Colosio C., Carugno M., Adisesh A. Diagnostic and exposure criteria for occupational diseases: Guidance notes for diagnosis and prevention of the diseases in the ILO List of Occupational Diseases (revised 2010). Geneva: ILO; 2022. https://clck.ru/3UQ6uA

27. On Approval of the List of Occupational Diseases: Order of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation No. 141n dated March 21, 2025. M.; 2025. https://clck.ru/3UPpMq (in Russian).

28. Guskova A.K., Baysogolov G.D. Human Radiation Sickness (Essays). M.: Medicine; 1971 (in Russian).

29. Guskova A.K., Gusev I.A., Okladnikova N.D. Russian concept of chronic radiation disease in man. British Journal of Radiology. Supplement. 2002; S26: 19–25.

30. Ilyin L.A. (ed.). Radiatsionnaya meditsina. Rukovodstvo dlya vrachey-issledovateley i organizatorov zdravookhraneniya [Radiation Medicine. A Guide for Medical Researchers and Healthcare Administrators]. Vol. 2. Moscow: IzdAT; 2001. 426 p. (in Russian).

31. Azizova T.V., Bannikova M.V., Zhuntova G.V., Grigoryeva E.S., Moseeva M.B., Bragin E.V. Registry for chronic radiation syndrome in a worker cohort of the Russian nuclear enterprise, Mayak Production Association. Journal of Radiological Protection. 2019; 39(3): 890–905. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6498/ab2b73

32. INRS. Tableau RG 6 — Affections provoquées par les rayonnements ionisants. https://clck.ru/3UQ7GJ

33. Karamullin M.A., Chepur S.V., Samokhvalov I.M., Shutko A.N., Seleznev A.B., Drachev I.S., Chekhovskikh Yu.S., Kondakov A.Yu., Remizov D.V., Ponomarev D.B. Clinical guidelines for prevention, diagnostics, treatment and recovery from acute radiation injuries: classification and basic pathology. Vestnik Rossiyskoy voyenno-meditsinskoy akademii [Bulletin of the Russian Military Medical Academy]. 2024; 26(1): 87–100. https://elibrary.ru/cwkbif (in Russian).

34. International Labour Organization. R114 – Radiation Protection Recommendation, 1960 (No. 114). https://clck.ru/3UQ7HZ

35. International Labour Organization. C115 – Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 (No. 115). https://clck.ru/3UQ7J7

36. On Radiation Safety of the Population. Federal Law No. 3-FZ of January 9, 1996. M.; 1996. https://clck.ru/3UPpa8 (in Russian).

37. On the Use of Atomic Energy: Federal Law No. 170-FZ dated November 21, 1995. M.; 1995. https://clck.ru/3UPpco (in Russian).

38. On Approval of the Procedure for Conducting Mandatory Preliminary and Periodic Medical Examinations of Employees…: Order of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation No. 29n dated January 28, 2021. https://clck.ru/3UPpfq (in Russian).

39. Matkevich E.I., Samoylov A.S., Sivenkov A.G., Bashkov A.N. Doses of patient exposure during computed tomography in 2020-2024 in comparison with doses of personnel working with ionizing radiation sources. Radiatsiya i risk. Byulleten' Natsional'nogo radiatsionno-epidemiologicheskogo registra [Radiation and Risk. Bulletin of the National Radiation-Epidemiological Registry]. 2026; 35(1): 127–137. https://elibrary.ru/nuhnal (in Russian).

40. Matkevich E.I. Expanded Application of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in the Practice of the Radiology Center: Necessity and Feasibility. Medicinskaja radiologija i radiacionnaja bezopasnost'. [Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety]. 2026; 71(1): 96–105. https://doi.org/10.33266/1024-6177-2026-71-1-96-105 (in Russian).