Features of the immune status of secondary lead production workers depending on their health status

Introduction. The article presents the results of a study devoted to the issue of the impact of health status and blood contamination with toxic elements on immune status.

The study aims to examine the characteristics of immune status in workers engaged in secondary lead production, depending on their health status.

Materials and methods. The authors conducted a clinical and immunological examination of 80 workers engaged in the secondary production of lead. The comparison group consisted of 80 conditionally healthy workers in auxiliary workshops who were practically not exposed to factors contained in the air. The health status was assessed by specialists based on the results of periodic medical examinations. The state of the local and systemic immune response was studied. The elemental composition of the blood was determined.

Results. Most workers have a health group III, and every fifth worker has an absolutely high or very high cardiovascular risk. The immune response was characterized by a tendency towards immunodeficiency. The deficiency of immunity in the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract was more pronounced in individuals with health group III. The study revealed high concentrations of lead in the blood of almost all the examined individuals; some workers showed elevated concentrations of cadmium, copper, and arsenic.

Limitations. In a comparative analysis of the impact of metals on the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, the researchers did not take into account the medications and dietary supplements taken by the study participants.

Conclusion. The state of somatic health and blood contamination with toxic elements are determining factors for the formation of an immune response in workers in the secondary lead production industry.

Ethics. The study was approved by the conclusion of the Local Ethics Committee of the Federal Budgetary Institution "Yekaterinburg Medical Research Center for the Prevention and Health Protection of Workers in Industrial Enterprises" of Rospotrebnadzor (Protocol No. 4 dated June 22, 2026). All study participants signed an informed voluntary consent.

Contributions:
Artemenko E.P. — study design, text writing, data collection and processing;
Bushueva T.V. — study concept and design, text writing;
Roslaya N.A. — study concept and design, editing;
Gribova Yu.V. — conducting clinical studies, collecting data;
Gurvich V.B. — study concept.

Funding. The study had no funding.

Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Received: 26.08.2026 / Accepted: 09.09.2026 / Published: 09.10.2026

1. Gurvich V.B., Shastin A.S., Gazimova V.G., Plotko E.G., Ustyugova T.S. Causes of lost vocational fitness for work in jeopardy and(or) hazardous work conditions. Russian Journal of Occupational Health and Industrial Ecology [Med. truda i prom. ekol.]. 2019; 59(2): 107–112. https://doi.org/10.31089/1026–9428–2019–59–2–107–112 (in Russian).

2. Gorblyansky Yu.Yu., Kontorovich E.P., Ponamareva O.P., Syachina A.V., Bogoslovskaya A.A. Current issues of examination of professional suitability of employees. Russian Journal of Occupational Health and Industrial Ecology [Med. truda i prom. ekol.]. 20192025; 65(2): 113–122. https://elibrary.ru/mjhdhm https://doi.org/10.31089/1026-9428-2025-65-2-113-122 (in Russian).

3. González Palomo A.K., Cortés García J.D., Saldaña Villanueva K., Díaz Barriga Martínez F., Méndez Rodríguez K. B., Alcantara Quintana L.E., et al. Exposure to multiple heavy metals associated with levels of inflammatory cytokines in workers in vulnerable conditions. Int. J. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health. 2025; 98(1): 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-024-02116-5

4. Kalahasthi R., Nagaraju R., Balachandar R., Bagepally B.S. Association between occupational lead exposure and immunotoxicity markers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Toxicology. 2022; 465: 153047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2021.153047

5. Wen Y., Hu H., Wang Y., Zhang X., Xiao Y., Li W., et al. Associations between circulating multiple metals and immunoglobulin levels: A cross-sectional study. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2025; 306: 119328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.119328

6. Anka A.U., Usman A.B., Kaoje A.N., Kabir R.M., Bala A., Kazem Arki M. et al. Potential mechanisms of some selected heavy metals in the induction of inflammation and autoimmunity. Eur. J. Inflamm. 2022; 20: 1721727X221122719. https://doi.org/10.1177/1721727X221122719

7. Zhang H., Wang J., Zhang K., Shi J., Gao Y., Zheng J., et al. Association between heavy metals exposure and persistent infections: the mediating role of immune function. Front. Public Health. 2024; 12: 1367644. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1367644

8. Dou J., Zhou L., Zhao Y., Jin W., Shen H., Zhang F. Effects of long-term high-level lead exposure on the immune function of workers. Arch. Environ. Occup. Health. 2022; 77(4): 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/19338244.2021.1893632

9. Churkо A.A., Rumyantsev A.Sh., Panina I.Yu. Immunoglobulin free light chains and cardiac remodeling in glomerulopathies. Regionarnoe krovoobrashhenie i mikrotsirkulyatsiya. 2023; 22(3): 34–40. https://doi.org/10.24884/1682-6655-2023-22-3-34-40 (in Russian).

10. Sargsyan M.V., Melikyan A.O., Melikyan O.A. Hepatorenal and renocardial syndrome in young patients with acute glomerulonephritis. Ehksperimental'naya i klinicheskaya gastroehnterologiya. 2023; (8): 86–92. https://doi.org/10.31146/1682-8658-ecg-216-8-86-92 (in Russian).

11. Hardziyevich T.H., Ishchanka A.V. New biomarkers of local immune response as additional predictors of COPD development. Vestnik VGMU. 2025; 24(6): 56–65. https://doi.org/10.22263/2312-4156.2025.6.56 (in Russian).

12. Boyalla V., Gallego-Colon E., Spartalis M. Immunity and inflammation in cardiovascular disorders. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2023; 23(1): 148. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12872-023-03185-z

13. Aivazian B.G., Partsernyak S.A., Lebedeva I.A., Kasatkin A.E., Golubova V.V., Partsernyak E.S. Immuno-inflammatory markers and arterial stiffness parameters in middle-aged men with hypertension and comorbidity. Kardiologiya: novosti, mneniya, obuchenie. 2026; 14 (1): 24–30. https://doi.org/10.33029/2309-1908-2026-14-1-24-30 (in Russian).

14. Hu Y., Kong Y., Tian X., Zhang X., Zuo Y. Association between heavy metals and triglyceride-glucose-related index: A mediation analysis of inflammation indicators. Lipids Health Dis. 2025; 24(1): 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12944-025-02441-9

15. Ivashchenko M.A., Fedoruk A.A., Karimova L.K., Martin S.V., Kudryashov I.N., Shtin T.N. et al. Comparative occupational hygiene assessment of working conditions of smelters in secondary lead production under production modernization. Meditsina truda i ehkologiya cheloveka. 2026; 2: 135–157. https://doi.org/10.24412/2411-3794-2026-10206 (in Russian).

16. Skalny А.V. Human Microelementoses (Diagnostics and Treatment) [Mikroehlementozy cheloveka (diagnostika i lechenie)]. Мoscow; 1999. https://elibrary.ru/wdhefd (in Russian).

17. Ptasiewicz M., Bębnowska, D., Małkowska P., Sierawska O., Poniewierska-Baran A., Hrynkiewicz R. et al. Immunoglobulin disorders and the oral cavity: A narrative review. J. Clin. Med. 2022; 11: 4873. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11164873

18. Kumari S., Samara M., Ampadi Ramachandran R., Gosh S., George H., Wang R. et al. A review on saliva-based health diagnostics: Biomarker selection and future directions. Biomed. Mater. Devices. 2024; 2(1): 121–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44174-023-00090-z

19. Matsuoka M., Soria S.A., Pires J.R., Sant'Ana A.C.P., Freire M. Natural and induced immune responses in oral cavity and saliva. BMC Immunol. 2025; 26(1): 34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12865-025-00713-8

20. Li Z.X., Li Y., Li L., Hou T., Wu X.H., Chen Y.H. et al. Effects of occupational lead exposure on the indicators of immune function of workers. Chin. J. Ind. Hyg. Occup. Dis. 2025; 43(1): 37–43. https://doi.org/10.3760/cma.j.cn121094-20240428-00191

21. Kuzmina L.P., Khotuleva A.G., Tsidilkovskaya E.S., Kolyaskina M.M. Assessment of immune status markers during occupational lead exposure. Russian Journal of Immunology. 2024; 27(3): 699–706. https://doi.org/10.46235/1028-7221-16610-AOI (in Russian).

22. Sun X., Deng Y., Fang L., Ni M., Wang X., Zhang T., et al. Association of exposure to heavy metal mixtures with systemic immune-inflammation index among US adults in NHANES 2011–2016. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2024; 202; 3005–3017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-023-03901-y